Indigenous Shoal Creek
BY ROCIO PEÑA-MARTINEZ
AUTHOR’S NOTE: Indigenous heritage sites in the United States are often targeted for vandalism, theft, or destruction. Research and education is needed to understand this large part of United States history and identity, however, information provided for educational purposes may instead be used to cause harm. We are aware and concerned about this possibility. We rely on the personal responsibility of anyone choosing to engage with this information to act conscientiously. The best practice for engaging with Indigenous artifacts is not to disturb, touch or remove them. For our part, our organization will not share known burial grounds or exact addresses.
Indigenous peoples and their histories have been and continue to be diverse. There is no easy answer or single source of truth for understanding these histories. A couple of recommended books relevant to Indigenous heritage and preservation are Say We Are Nations by Daniel M. Cobb and Prophets and Ghosts by Samuel J. Redman.
Shoal Creek, 2022 (Photo: Patricia Lim / KUT)
The natural springs born out of Shoal Creek in Old West Austin have been part of the known and cherished network of waterways extensively traveled by Indigenous Peoples for millennia prior to European invasions. Recent paleontological studies confirm that human groups have lived in North America for at least 20,000 years, specifically in the Clovis region that borders present-day Texas. Significant Clovis sites are found in Texas as well. Figure 1 is a closeup of 21,000-23,000 year-old footprints belonging to infants, teens, and adults found around the ancient freshwater source Lake Otero. Although linking these peoples to Indigenous groups as we understand them today is not possible with available science, Indigenous Peoples of the Americas recognize a continuity of belonging to this land from time immemorial.
Historical sources confirm Indigenous groups in Texas were closely connected to freshwater sources, such as springs. It’s easy to imagine that springs in Austin, like those found along Shoal Creek, would have been hubs of life for Indigenous peoples. The springs at Shoal Creek are fed by the Edwards Aquifer, a prolific groundwater system shaped by the Balcones Fault that feeds many other springs in the Austin area.
Figure 1. Footprints embedded in the beaches surrounding Lake Otero
Although multiple Indigenous groups shared knowledge and stewardship of these natural resources, the majority of our accepted historical sources come from white settlers following the Spanish colonial invasion. Through this lens, Shoal Creek and its freshwater spring access was associated with one tribe in particular: Numunu (Comanche). In the era of Austin’s settlement, Numunu fought against encroachment by settlers, as well as for the expansion of their own territories. Traditionally seasonally nomadic, Numunu interacted more frequently, and more contentiously, with white settlers as permanent settlements threatened natural resources, reducing the space and resources available for all tribes and encouraging fierce competition. This is reflected in the fast-changing alliances and enmities between Indigenous groups throughout this era. Click here for a diagram illustrating changes of alliances with Native American Tribes in Texas by Amy Heath of the Caddo Nation from her project “To Relate”
Figure 2. Excerpt from expandable alliances diagram created by Amy Heath of the Caddo Nation. The full diagram may be found here.
Numunu, known for their expert horsemanship and military fierceness, controlled much of the plains area from New Mexico through Texas and south into Mexico. For at least a hundred years, they were a formidable opponent for established Indigenous communities in today’s Texas, other nomadic communities that homed in Central Texas, and eventually, white settlers. Their adoption of horses introduced from Europe after 1510 necessitated moving in smaller clan groups that relied on stealth tactics in high-population areas. There is also evidence that Indigenous groups had cultural ties to horses native to the Americas before colonialism. Numunu’s adoption of and adaptation with horses is important cultural heritage regardless of contested timelines.
Their position as “Lords of the Plains” is partly due to their command of this transportation method, and the lifestyle skills acquired as seasonally migrating people. Topography is highly important in Numunu’s language, skills, and worldview itself. A historian from this group may recount stories as though surveying a map. High vantage points are distinctly associated with the topographically gifted Numunu groups in Central Texas. The only site named in recognition of an Indigenous group in Travis County is Comanche Peak in West Austin, but Numunu are associated with many peaks and mountains, including Mount Bonnell.
The City of Austin was established in 1839. By then Numunu were known to have a territorial dominion over Shoal Creek [Figure 3]. During this era, Shoal Creek served as a western boundary between the City and Indigenous territories, although it is unclear how diverse Indigenous groups would have understood that distinction. Shoal Creek was part of the Indigenous trail system that was known and used by many groups, but at the time of Austin’s settlement, the Shoal Creek portion was specifically referred to as a Comanche trail. Shoal Creek was the site of multiple documented Numunu entries into the fledgling Austin.
Interactions documented by white settlers of Austin almost exclusively dealt with violence, and Shoal Creek was a known hotspot for Numunu “raids” [Figure 3]. We have largely inherited the viewpoint and stories of white settlers, so Numunu’s own understanding of these situations is conspicuously missing. One such event is immortalized in a historical marker at Shoal Creek that reads:
Site of 1839 home and 1842 massacre of Gideon White. A daughter, Louisa, wed (1846) Edward Seiders, for who oaks are named.
Although “depredations” by Indigenous people of Central Texas were thoroughly recounted and documented, there is no evidence of any massacre being committed by an Indigenous group in Austin. This marker is from an era in which this kind if inaccuracy was useful in establishing local lore, and may not reflect the true histories for these people or their families.
Figure 3. Clippings from Austin History Center’s Indigenous Collection are disproportionately concerned with Numunu raids.
In 1842, the Tickanwatic (Tonkawa) moved into the city of Austin and camped in an oak grove along Shoal Creek until at least 1843. The Tickanwatic campsite is believed to have been located at or around where the United States Federal Courthouse stands now, immediately west of Republic Square. The Tickanwatic moved their camp to this location to safeguard the struggling Austin settlement, whose population had dwindled by about half on evacuation orders of Governor Sam Houston during a period of white settlers’ infighting called the Archive War [Figure 5]. The Archive War was precipitated by Mexican authorities enforcing existing agreements with Euro-American settlers, and pressure from Indigenous groups like Numunu and ‘Nde (Apache). The so-called war resulted in the rapid depopulation of the already vulnerable settlement. The Tickanwatic were in the Austin area before the arrival of the Euro-Americans, and like most groups based in and around Austin, moved their encampments in response to their environment. The group would likely have to be invited into the white settlement, but it is unclear how this exchange took place. In exchange for their protection and scouting abilities, the Tickanwatic enjoyed the benefit of doing business openly. Otherwise, Indigenous peoples were not free to do trade without the express permission and control of settler authorities - who enforced perceived violations with violence or death.
Figure 5. Letter from Sam Houston expressing his concern for mounting dangers in Austin and the need to remove people and archives to the new interim capitol. Full letter and transcript here.
During the period that the Tickanwatic resided along Shoal Creek, no complaints were made by white settlers against the tribe, and a unique experience of coexistence was remembered by early Austinites. Meanwhile, citizen vigilantes holding the Texas government archives hostage succeeded in having the seat of government returned to Austin, along with more white settlers. It was this political tug-of-war that brought the Tickanwatic to settle along Shoal Creek, and likely the reason they had to leave as well.
It is unclear if the Tickanwatic were made to leave by force, but their oral histories suggest their time in Austin is deeply important to their history and they would not have left if given the choice. The Tickanwatic continued to act as friends and allies to Texas settlers and government even after their departure from the city. In return, the Texas state government forcibly marched the Tickanwatic to reservations against their will, on three separate displacements. Each time, the Tickanwatic made the strong case that their very allegiance to Texas put them in grave danger of retaliation from other Indigenous groups and that, more than anything, they wished to remain in their Central Texas homeland. It is reported by recent interviews that Tickanwatic at the Tonkawa Reservation in Oklahoma still consider Austin a homeland.
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Figure 2. "To Relate: Indigenous Views on Native American Historical Events in Texas." Oakwood Cemetery Chapel, City of Austin Parks and Recreation Department. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/collections/4a3a81d1e8a44da1bc28a0f3df0f679f.
Figure 3a. Various clippings all found in Austin History Center : Collection I0400.
Figure 3b. "Indians Still Problem in 1847". Unknown Publisher (Austin American Statesman most likely), August 19, 1956. Austin History Center. IO400.
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Numunu, “The People”, is spelled here in one of several variations. Comanche is a pejorative term given to Numunu by other people, and while it remains a part of tribal/national identity, it is not accurate.
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Funding for Preservation Austin’s Indigenous Heritage Internship is provided by the City of Austin Planning Department, Historic Preservation Office.